Demarkasiya problemi

百度四驱旗舰版官方指导价：万元相应的，车型也有这款380TSI旗舰版4MOTION车型，动力和驱动形式上的差异一目了然，不过就增加的这些配置来说，售价的差异显然是有些贵了。

Demarkasiya problemi — elmin f?ls?f?sind? elmi bilikl? qeyri-elmi v? ya yalan elmi bilikl?r aras?ndak? s?rh?dl?rin mü?yy?nl??dirilm?si problemi.^[1] Bu m?s?l? elmin n? oldu?unu v? onu elm olmayan sah?l?rd?n nec? f?rql?ndirm?yin mümkünlüyünü ara?d?r?r. "Demarkasiya" termini lat?nca "demarcatio" s?zünd?n g?türülüb v? "s?rh?d ??km?k" m?nas?n? verir.^[2]^[3]

Demarkasiya problemi yaln?z n?z?ri yox, h?m d? praktik ?h?miyy?t da??y?r. Elm ad? alt?nda yay?lan qeyri-elmi iddialar? tan?maq, d?vl?tin elmi siyas?tini formala?d?rmaq v? elmi t?hsil proqramlar?n? mü?yy?nl??dirm?k bax?m?ndan bu problem xüsusi aktuall?q k?sb edir.^[4]^[5]

Tarixi

Demarkasiya problemi Aristoteld?n ba?layaraq müzakir? olunmu?, lakin ?sas?n Yeni d?vr f?ls?f?si v? elm inqilab? d?vründ? aktualla?m??d?r.^[6]XIX ?srd? Ogüst Kontun pozitivizm n?z?riyy?si elmi bilikl? metafizik dü?ünc? aras?nda f?rq qoyma?a ?al??m??d?r. XX ?srd? bu problem Karl Poper, Tomas Kun, ?mre Lakatos v? Pol Feyerabend kimi tan?nm?? elm filosoflar? t?r?find?n müxt?lif yana?malarla t?hlil olunmu?dur.

Karl Popper demarkasiya probleminin klassik formulunu t?qdim etmi?dir. Onun fikrinc?, bir n?z?riyy?nin elmi olmas? ü?ün o, saxtalanabil?n (falsifikasiya edil? bil?n) olmal?d?r. Y?ni n?z?riyy? el? ifad? olunmal?d?r ki, onu yanl??la?d?racaq bir mü?ahid? v? ya eksperiment t?s?vvür etm?k mümkün olsun.

Astronomiya v? nisbilik n?z?riyy?si elmi n?z?riyy?l?rdir, ?ünki onlar?n proqnozlar? test edil? bil?r.
Astrologiya, psixoanaliz v? marksizm kimi n?z?riyy?l?r is? saxtalanma meyar?na cavab verm?dikl?rin? g?r? elmi hesab oluna bilm?z.

Tomas Kun “Elmi inqilablar?n qurulu?u” (1962) ?s?rind? elmin x?tti ??kild? deyil, paradiqma d?yi?iklikl?ri yolu il? inki?af etdiyini g?st?rmi?dir. Kuna g?r?, elm tarixind? münt?z?m elmi f?aliyy?t d?vrl?ri "normal elm", ?sasl? d?yi?iklikl?r is? "elmi inqilab" adlan?r.^[7]^[8] O, Popperin saxtalanma meyar?n?n praktiki elmi f?aliyy?td? tez-tez i?l?k olmad???n? qeyd edir. Lakatos demarkasiya problemini t?dqiqat proqramlar? anlay??? il? izah etm?y? ?al??d?. O, elmi n?z?riyy?l?rin ?sas nüv?sinin k?klü ??kild? t?kzib edilm?diyini, lakin ?traf f?rziyy?l?rin d?yi?? bil?c?yini g?st?rdi. Saxtalanma bird?f?lik deyil, n?z?ri proqram?n ümumi u?uru il? qiym?tl?ndirilm?lidir.^[9]

Feyerabend daha radikal m?vqe tutaraq demarkasiya probleminin ?zü il? raz?la?mad?. O, "elm ü?ün vahid metod yoxdur" prinsipini müdafi? ed?r?k, elmin s?rb?st inki?af?na h?r cür metodun uy?un ola bil?c?yini s?yl?di. Onun "H?r ?ey ke??rlidir" (Anything goes) ?üar? elmi bilikl?rin ?oxlu?unu v? plüralizmini müdafi? edirdi.^[10]

Müasir yana?malar

Müasir d?vrd? demarkasiya problemi tam h?llini tapmam?? qal?r. Larri Laudan v? dig?r elm?ünaslar bu problemin ?v?zin? elmi bilikl?rin etibarl?l?q v? ?sasland?rma meyarlar? il? qiym?tl?ndirilm?sini t?klif edirl?r. Massimo Pilyu??i is? 2000-ci ill?rd? yenid?n demarkasiya meyarlar?n?n i?l?nm?sinin vacibliyini müdafi? etmi? v? praktiki ??r?iv?l?r t?klif etmi?dir.^[11]

T?nqidi

Demarkasiya problemi elm f?ls?f?sind? mühüm yer tutsa da, bir s?ra n?z?ri v? praktiki t?nqidl?r? m?ruz qalm??d?r. Bu t?nqidl?r ?sas?n vahid v? universal demarkasiya meyar?n?n mümkün olub-olmamas?, elmin dinamik v? ?ox?ax?li t?bi?ti, habel? meyarlar?n t?tbiqi il? ba?l? yaranan ??tinlikl?r? ?saslan?r.^[12]

Birinci ?sas t?nqid elmin tarixi v? sosial kontekstd? d?yi?k?n olmas? il? ba?l?d?r. Tomas Kun ?zünün "Elmi inqilablar?n qurulu?u" ?s?rind? g?st?rir ki, elm tarix boyu müxt?lif "paradigma"lar ??r?iv?sind? inki?af etmi?dir v? bu paradigma d?yi?iklikl?ri zaman? "elm" kimi q?bul olunan anlay?? d?yi?? bil?r. Bu is? g?st?rir ki, elmi v? qeyri-elmi bilikl?r aras?nda s?rt v? d?yi?m?z s?rh?dl?r ??km?k mümkün olmaya bil?r.^[13]

?kinci t?nqid Karl Popperin ir?li sürdüyü saxtalanma meyar?n?n m?hdudlu?u il? ba?l?d?r. Bu meyar elmi n?z?riyy?l?rin yanl??lanabilm?sini t?l?b edir, lakin b?zi elmi n?z?riyy?l?r (m?s?l?n, psixologiya v? ya iqtisadiyyat sah?sind?ki b?zi modell?r) test edil? bilm?y?c?k q?d?r mür?kk?b v? kontekstual ola bil?r. Bundan ba?qa, tarixd? saxtalanma meyar?na cavab verm?y?n, lakin sonradan elmi inqilablara yol a?an n?z?riyy?l?r d? olmu?dur (m?s?l?n, Kopernik modeli ilkin m?rh?l?d? mü?ahid?l?rl? tam üst-üst? dü?mürdü).^[14]

ü?üncü t?nqid is? f?nl?raras? v? qeyri-?n?n?vi t?dqiqatlar?n elmd?n k?narda qalmas? riski il? ?laq?lidir. Müasir elmi f?aliyy?tl?r tez-tez bir ne?? sah?ni ?hat? edir v? s?rh?dl?ri ayd?n olmayan m?vzularda t?dqiqat apar?r. Bel? hallarda s?rt demarkasiya meyarlar? bu cür ara?d?rmalar? qeyri-elmi kimi t?snif ed? bil?r ki, bu da elmin inki?af?na ?ng?l ola bil?r.^[15]

N?hay?t, demarkasiya problemi b?z?n ideoloji v? ya siyasi m?qs?dl?rl? istifad? edil? bil?r. M?s?l?n, b?zi hakimiyy?tl?r v? ya institutlar mü?yy?n bilik formalar?n? elmd?n k?nar hesab ed?r?k onlar? qeyri-legitim kimi t?qdim ed? bil?rl?r. Bu is? demarkasiyan?n neytral bir meyar olma xüsusiyy?tini ?übh? alt?na al?r.^[16]

Bütün bu t?nqidl?r g?st?rir ki, demarkasiya problemi sad?c? texniki deyil, eyni zamanda epistemoloji, tarixi v? sosial kontekstl? ba?l? mür?kk?b bir m?s?l?dir. Bu s?b?bd?n, bir ?ox müasir elm filosofu elmi biliyin s?rh?dl?rini mü?yy?nl??dirm?k ü?ün bir deyil, ?oxsayl? v? elastik meyarlar toplusun?n istifad? olunmas?n? t?klif edir.^[17]

H?m?inin bax

?stinadlar

↑ Resnik, David B. "A pragmatic approach to the demarcation problem". Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A. 31 (2). 2000: 249–267. Bibcode:2000SHPSA..31..249R. doi:10.1016/S0039-3681(00)00004-2.
↑ Laudan, Larry, The Demise of the Demarcation Problem // Cohen, R.S.; Laudan, L. (redaktorlar ), Physics, Philosophy and Psychoanalysis: Essays in Honor of Adolf Grünbaum, Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, 76, Dordrecht: D. Reidel, 1983, 111–127, ISBN 90-277-1533-5. Alternative source: [1]
↑ Lakatos, I.; Feyerabend, P.; Motterlini, M. For and Against Method: Including Lakatos's Lectures on Scientific Method and the Lakatos-Feyerabend Correspondence. University of Chicago Press. 1999. s?h. 20. ISBN 9780226467740. LCCN 99013581. The demarcation problem may be formulated in the following terms: what distinguishes science from pseudoscience? This is an extreme way of putting it, since the more general problem, called the Generalized Demarcation Problem, is really the problem of the appraisal of scientific theories, and attempts to answer the question: when is one theory better than another?
↑ Gauch, Hugh G. Jr. Scientific Method in Practice. 2003. 3–7. ISBN 978-0-521-81689-2.
↑ Cover, J. A.; Curd, Martin, redaktorlar Philosophy of Science: The Central Issues. W.W. Norton. 1998. 1–82. ISBN 978-0-393-97175-0.
↑ Lloyd, G. E. R., Science, Folklore and Ideology: Studies in the Life Sciences in Ancient Greece, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983, 79–80, ISBN 0-521-27307-2, Faced with ... competition from a variety of more or less exploitative rival healers, the doctors responsible for many or most of the Hippocratic treatises unite, at least, in their desire to turn the practice of healing into a τ?χνη. ... [N]ot only do they reject interference in most cases from priests and prophets, they also criticise many current practices and assumptions.
↑ Gauch, Hugh G. Jr. Scientific Method in Practice. 2003. 3–7. ISBN 978-0-521-81689-2.
↑ Cover, J. A.; Curd, Martin, redaktorlar Philosophy of Science: The Central Issues. W.W. Norton. 1998. 1–82. ISBN 978-0-393-97175-0.
↑ Lloyd, G. E. R., Science, Folklore and Ideology: Studies in the Life Sciences in Ancient Greece, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983, 79–80, ISBN 0-521-27307-2, Faced with ... competition from a variety of more or less exploitative rival healers, the doctors responsible for many or most of the Hippocratic treatises unite, at least, in their desire to turn the practice of healing into a τ?χνη. ... [N]ot only do they reject interference in most cases from priests and prophets, they also criticise many current practices and assumptions.
↑ Lloyd, G. E. R., Science, Folklore and Ideology: Studies in the Life Sciences in Ancient Greece, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983, s?h. 215, ISBN 0-521-27307-2
↑ Lloyd, G.E.R., The Revolutions of Wisdom: Studies in the Claims and Practice of Ancient Greek Science, Sather Classical Lectures, 52, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1986, 117–118, ISBN 0-520-06742-8
↑ Fernandez-Beanato, Damian. "Cicero's demarcation of science: a report of shared criteria". Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A. 83. 2020: 97–102. Bibcode:2020SHPSA..83...97F. doi:10.1016/j.shpsa.2020.04.002. PMID 32958286 (#bad_pmid).
↑ Lloyd, G.E.R., The Revolutions of Wisdom: Studies in the Claims and Practice of Ancient Greek Science, Sather Classical Lectures, 52, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1986, 141–147, ISBN 0-520-06742-8
↑ Lloyd, G.E.R., The Revolutions of Wisdom: Studies in the Claims and Practice of Ancient Greek Science, Sather Classical Lectures, 52, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1986, 213–214, ISBN 0-520-06742-8
↑ Lloyd, G.E.R., Magic Reason and Experience: Studies in the Origin and Development of Greek Science, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979, 15–27, ISBN 0-521-29641-2
↑ Thagard, Paul R., "Why Astrology is a Pseudoscience", PSA: Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association, 1978, 1978: 223–234, doi:10.1086/psaprocbienmeetp.1978.1.192639
↑ Clagett, Marshall, Greek Science in Antiquity, New York: Collier Books, 1963, s?h. 4

Xarici ke?idl?r

[1] Resnik, David B. "A pragmatic approach to the demarcation problem". Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A. 31 (2). 2000: 249–267. Bibcode:2000SHPSA..31..249R. doi:10.1016/S0039-3681(00)00004-2.

[Laudan1983-2] Laudan, Larry, The Demise of the Demarcation Problem // Cohen, R.S.; Laudan, L. (redaktorlar ), Physics, Philosophy and Psychoanalysis: Essays in Honor of Adolf Grünbaum, Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, 76, Dordrecht: D. Reidel, 1983, 111–127, ISBN 90-277-1533-5. Alternative source: [1]

[Lakatos1999-3] Lakatos, I.; Feyerabend, P.; Motterlini, M. For and Against Method: Including Lakatos's Lectures on Scientific Method and the Lakatos-Feyerabend Correspondence. University of Chicago Press. 1999. s?h. 20. ISBN 9780226467740. LCCN 99013581. The demarcation problem may be formulated in the following terms: what distinguishes science from pseudoscience? This is an extreme way of putting it, since the more general problem, called the Generalized Demarcation Problem, is really the problem of the appraisal of scientific theories, and attempts to answer the question: when is one theory better than another?

[4] Gauch, Hugh G. Jr. Scientific Method in Practice. 2003. 3–7. ISBN 978-0-521-81689-2.

[5] Cover, J. A.; Curd, Martin, redaktorlar Philosophy of Science: The Central Issues. W.W. Norton. 1998. 1–82. ISBN 978-0-393-97175-0.

[6] Lloyd, G. E. R., Science, Folklore and Ideology: Studies in the Life Sciences in Ancient Greece, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983, 79–80, ISBN 0-521-27307-2, Faced with ... competition from a variety of more or less exploitative rival healers, the doctors responsible for many or most of the Hippocratic treatises unite, at least, in their desire to turn the practice of healing into a τ?χνη. ... [N]ot only do they reject interference in most cases from priests and prophets, they also criticise many current practices and assumptions.

[7] Gauch, Hugh G. Jr. Scientific Method in Practice. 2003. 3–7. ISBN 978-0-521-81689-2.

[8] Cover, J. A.; Curd, Martin, redaktorlar Philosophy of Science: The Central Issues. W.W. Norton. 1998. 1–82. ISBN 978-0-393-97175-0.

[9] Lloyd, G. E. R., Science, Folklore and Ideology: Studies in the Life Sciences in Ancient Greece, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983, 79–80, ISBN 0-521-27307-2, Faced with ... competition from a variety of more or less exploitative rival healers, the doctors responsible for many or most of the Hippocratic treatises unite, at least, in their desire to turn the practice of healing into a τ?χνη. ... [N]ot only do they reject interference in most cases from priests and prophets, they also criticise many current practices and assumptions.

[10] Lloyd, G. E. R., Science, Folklore and Ideology: Studies in the Life Sciences in Ancient Greece, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983, s?h. 215, ISBN 0-521-27307-2

[11] Lloyd, G.E.R., The Revolutions of Wisdom: Studies in the Claims and Practice of Ancient Greek Science, Sather Classical Lectures, 52, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1986, 117–118, ISBN 0-520-06742-8

[12] Fernandez-Beanato, Damian. "Cicero's demarcation of science: a report of shared criteria". Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A. 83. 2020: 97–102. Bibcode:2020SHPSA..83...97F. doi:10.1016/j.shpsa.2020.04.002. PMID 32958286 (#bad_pmid).

[13] Lloyd, G.E.R., The Revolutions of Wisdom: Studies in the Claims and Practice of Ancient Greek Science, Sather Classical Lectures, 52, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1986, 141–147, ISBN 0-520-06742-8

[14] Lloyd, G.E.R., The Revolutions of Wisdom: Studies in the Claims and Practice of Ancient Greek Science, Sather Classical Lectures, 52, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1986, 213–214, ISBN 0-520-06742-8

[15] Lloyd, G.E.R., Magic Reason and Experience: Studies in the Origin and Development of Greek Science, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979, 15–27, ISBN 0-521-29641-2

[16] Thagard, Paul R., "Why Astrology is a Pseudoscience", PSA: Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association, 1978, 1978: 223–234, doi:10.1086/psaprocbienmeetp.1978.1.192639

[17] Clagett, Marshall, Greek Science in Antiquity, New York: Collier Books, 1963, s?h. 4

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

Elm v? texnologiya t?dqiqatlar?
?qtisadiyyat	Elm iqtisadiyyat? Elmi bilik iqtisadiyyat?
Tarix	Elm v? tarix f?ls?f?si Elm tarixi v? texnologiya Texnologiya tarixi
F?ls?f?	Anthropocene Antipozitivizm Empirizm Qeyri-s?lis m?ntiq Neoluddizm Elmin f?ls?f?si Sosial elm f?ls?f?si Texnologiya f?ls?f?si Pozitivizm Postpozitivizm Elm v? din Ssientizm Sosial konstruktivizm Sosial epistemologiya Transhumanizm
Sosiologiya	Aktor-??b?k? n?z?riyy?si Sosial texnologiyan?n konstruksiyas? texnologiyan?n formas? Bilik sosiologiyas? elmi Elmi c?hal?t sosiologiyas? Elm tarixinin sosiologiyas? Sosiotexnologiya Güclü sosiologiya
Elmi t?dqiqatlar	Antielm Bibliometriya S?rh?d i?i Uy?unluq Elmin t?nqidi Demarkasiya problemi ?kiqat hermenevtika Logologiya X?rit???km? mübahis?l?ri Metaelm Paradiqman?n d?yi?m?si qara qu qu?u n?z?riyy?si Yalan elml?r Elmin psixologiyas? Elm v?t?nda? kommunikasiya t?hsili normal Neokolonial postnormal ritorika müharib?l?r Elmi icma konsensus mübahis? fikir ayr?l??? mü?ssis? savadl?l?q metod yanl?? davran?? prioritet skeptisizm Elmiokratiya Elmmetriya Komanda elmi ?n?n?vi bilik ekoloji Elmin birliyi Elmd? qad?nlar STEM
Texnologiya t?dqiqatlar?	Birg? istehsal Kiborq antropologiyas? Dizayn?ünasl?q Dematerializasiya R?q?msal antropologiya R?q?msal mediadan istifad? v? psixi sa?laml?q Erk?n istifad??i Müh?ndislik Maliyy? texnologiyas? H?v?sl?nm? d?vrü ?nnovasiya diffuziya da??d?c? x?tti modeli sistem istifad??i S??ray?? Normalla?ma prosesi n?z?riyy?si Media?ünasl?q T?rs ??x?nt? Skunkworks layih?si Sosiotexniki sistem Texniki d?yi?iklik Texnokratiya Texnoelm feminist Texnoloji d?yi?iklik konvergensiya determinizm inqilab ke?idl?r Texnologiya v? c?miyy?t t?nqidi dinamika n?z?riyy?l?r transfer Müh?ndislikd? qad?nlar
Siyas?t	Akademik azadl?q ?nformasiya b?rab?rsizliyi Sübutlara ?saslanan siyas?t Faktor 10 Elmin maliyy?l??dirilm?si Uzaqg?r?nlik Elmin siyasil??dirilm?si Elmin t?nziml?nm?si T?dqiqat etikas? Elm hüququ Elm siyas?ti tarixi elmi Sosioelmi probleml?r Texnologiyan?n qiym?tl?ndirilm?si Texnologiya siyas?ti Ke?id idar?etm?si
Portallar Elm Elm tarixi Texnologiya Kateqoriya

手机为什么没信号	做噩梦被吓醒预示什么	画像是什么意思	天空为什么会打雷	内膜厚吃什么掉内膜
分山念什么	低血钾有什么症状	菱角什么时候成熟	糖尿病吃什么主食最好	bayer是什么药
马桶对着卫生间门有什么不好	糖尿病人早餐吃什么	阿修罗道是什么意思	来源是什么意思	脖子上有结节挂什么科
阴蒂瘙痒是什么原因	碧生源减肥茶有什么副作用	痉挛是什么意思啊	孩子气是什么意思	嘴巴里起泡是什么原因

小便刺痛什么原因hcv8jop4ns0r.cn	四维是检查什么hcv7jop7ns1r.cn	喉咙痛咽口水都痛吃什么药hcv9jop3ns3r.cn	为什么泡完脚后非常痒hcv8jop9ns0r.cn	枸橼酸西地那非片有什么副作用hcv8jop5ns7r.cn
胸围110是什么罩杯hcv9jop4ns3r.cn	什么空如洗hcv9jop2ns2r.cn	拉肚子胃疼吃什么药hcv9jop2ns9r.cn	张五行属什么hcv8jop9ns1r.cn	金铃子是什么昆虫hcv8jop0ns3r.cn
肝阴不足吃什么中成药zsyouku.com	干咳吃什么药hcv9jop5ns4r.cn	检查胰腺做什么检查gysmod.com	治股癣用什么药最好hcv7jop5ns5r.cn	鬼冢虎属于什么档次hcv9jop0ns9r.cn
梅毒是什么病hcv9jop2ns8r.cn	手没有力气是什么原因hcv9jop4ns8r.cn	7月份可以种什么菜hcv9jop1ns0r.cn	闭合性跌打损伤是什么意思hcv8jop7ns9r.cn	绿茶妹是什么意思hcv8jop9ns6r.cn